Weir focuses on some of the many activities the royal court participated in to pass the time in this chapter. We begin to get a good picture of what Henry was really like as a young man, “‘young and lusty, disposed all to mirth and pleasure…all other affairs neglected.’” (85). A lot of the King’s work was paper work, which he detested. He often offered different excuses to his secretary Richard Pace in the hopes of avoiding it. Henry VIII’s subject often contrasted him favorably with his father, whom they disliked. 

Court entertainments were a favored pass time. The Master of Revels and his staff were responsible for the organization of court festivities, of which there were a lot. Some of the costumes and props were made of the richest materials. Props were often made of paper mache. 

Weir discusses some of the men who headed these revels, particularly William Cornish. Early Tudor drama, like some of the plays Cornish wrote, consisted of mainly morality plays. These quickly went out of fashion with the Reformation and other entertainments, like masques and pageants quickly grew in popularity. Pageants were “entertainments involving mock battles…allegorical figures, and the ideals of chivalry and courtly love” of which Henry VIII was very fond (91). Pageants were performed at special occasions, like Christmas, Epiphany, Shrovetide, and other feast days. 

On normal days, time was spent hunting, dancing, gambling, and playing board games. Dancing was a favored pass time of Henry, who was very good at it. Dances at the royal court were peasant in origin, and began and ended with a reverent bow to the king and queen. Henry was also fond of gambling (cards, dice, board games, tennis, and dog races). It seems he gambled away much of his inheritance. Henry was also very fond of staging fights with his gentlemen, often for the entertainment of the ladies of the court.

Poetry writing was, as Weir describes it, “the gentlest courtly pursuit” (94). Henry enjoyed writing poetry and music. His famous is “Pastime with Good Company.” However, little work is known from Henry’s early reign, but his later reign and that of his children produced many works we are still very familiar with today.

A handwritten copy of Henry's song "Pastime with Good Company."

Weir uses chapter 9 to go into more detail about the rituals and etiquette of the royal court. At Henry VIII’s court, a rigid code of etiquette was followed. There were 6 Great Occasions of Estate during Henry’s reign: 1) and 2) Two coronations (Henry/Katherine of Aragon’s and Anne Boleyn’s), 3) near-legendary summit meeting (Field of Cloth of Gold), 4) and 5) two royal visits, 6) and a reception for a future queen. The court was “at its most splendid” during the holidays Christmas and New Years, Easter, Twelfth Night, Ascension Day, Feast of the Assumption,  and Midsummer Day (77). During these celebrations, the King and Queen would participate in solemn ceremonies followed by great feasting where the King would eat in public, watched by the court.

Tudor feasts were extremely extravagant. The center piece of these feasts was a “prodigy dish” such as a roast peacock redressed in it feathers or pies shaped to represent real things-like St. Paul’s Cathedral (78). However, the favorite (and most extravagant) piece was always the confection piece made of sugar and shaped into a towering theme (going along with the reason for the feast). Feast could last for hours, and were often accompanied with dancing and music.

Daily life was also governed by ritual. At 7am the Yoemen of the Guard would change guard with the Ushers for the day’s guarding of the King. Henry generally rose at 8am. The Grooms and pages would have already lit the fires and cleaned the apartments. He would then wash and be dressed (his clothes passing through several hands in getting to him). The King was “loosely dressed” by his grooms, then completely dressed by his Gentlemen. After being dressed, Henry would be shaved.

Following the King’s dressing he would “come forth” to hear mass in the chapel. Along this route courtiers would crowd the way hoping to give their petition to the King. He would often go hunting in the mornings, followed by a meal. Because Henry had his own Privy Kitchen, he could eat his meal at a different time from the rest of the court. Even when eating alone his meals were conducted with great formality, being served on bended knee. 

It was rare for the King and Queen to eat together, however the King would often eat in her apartments. 

After eating, the King could conduct state business or pass the time in pleasure (such as horseback riding or reading).

At night, the King’s bed was “arrayed” meaning 10 men of the bedchamber would redress the great bed in preparation for the King. The King’s sword and axe would then be ceremoniously hung within reach of the bed. Midnight was the normal hour for bed. Henry would be dressed in a nightgown and would wash his face and his teeth. Two grooms would then sleep outside on pallets and the Yoemen Guard would come back on duty.

Weir focuses on food in this chapter, and the great cost and effort it took to feed the royal court. The kitchens at royal palaces were quite large, occupying 1/3 of the palace itself. The kitchen was divided into several parts, each with its own specific function. The larders supplied the raw food while different kitchens cooked different things (such as meat, sauces, and sweets). These specific areas were designed around courts. 

The Clerk of the Kitchen oversaw all of these areas, as well as the many workers in them (from 180-350 persons). Most food was seasonal. Because refrigeration was not available, food was generally supplied daily. The type of food and seasoning on it depended on one’s status. The higher ranking you were, the better the food. Everyone drink wine, ale, and beer. Though water was piped to the palace, it was not thought safe to drink.

As stated in a previous chapter, those of lower rank (the majority of the court) at in the Great Hall. High ranking officials at in the King’s Great Watching Chamber. Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber had the honor of dining in the Council Chamber. Breakfast was served around 7am. Dinner (the main meal of the day) was served between 10am-1pm, and Supper between 4pm-7pm. An evening snack (known as “all night”) was served around 8pm-9pm.

Tables were generally set in a “U” shape with dinners sitting according to rank. Dinners would have a plate (higher ranking at off silver/pewter plates) but bring their own eating knife. Forks were only used for serving, not eating. Napkins were thrown over the shoulder, not placed on the lap and elbows and fists were kept off the table. It was considered uncharitable to finish one’s food, as the left overs were given to the servers or given to the poor.

To learn more about the preparation of food, take a look at my Hampton Court Photo Tour which has a page devoted to the Hampton Court kitchens here.

Chapter 7 explores many of the division of the royal court.

The court was divided into two parts, the Chamber and the Household.

The head of the Chamber was the Lord Chamberlain, who was responsible for every member of the household (which could be up to 400!) The position was filled by a learned and important nobleman, as he also advised the king and was also responsible for court ceremonies.

The head of the Household was the Lord Stewart who was responsible for provisions and cleaning in the household (and also responsible for up to 500 persons!) 

The Master of the Horse was responsible for the upkeep of the stables and the care of the King’s horses and animals. 

These three positions were known as the “Great Officers of the Household” followed by the Treasurer (responsible for the ordering of provisions for the household), the Comptroller (responsible for managing the Treasurer’s finances), and the Vice Chamberlain. Each member of this elite circle carried a white stick, a symbol for their power directly from the King. They were nicknamed the “White Sticks.”

Jobs as servants in the royal household were competitive and fierce. They were well paid, and given certain allotments of food and other provisions. Servants wore royal liveries, embroidered with the Tudor rose or the King/Queen’s arms.

To maintain order, a chief governoring body was created known as the Board of the Greencloth. They set out rules for behavior, dealt with discipline, and kept records of weekly expenditures.

Though Henry received around 100,000 a year (about 30 million today), he died in debt. The royal court was a constant drain on royal funds, amounting to one third of the yearly spending. Both Wolsey and Cromwell attempted to curve wastefulness at court, but to little avail.

Beacuse monarchs were suppose to be highly visible at court, security was somewhat lax. The Yoemen guards were originally established by Henry VII as personal body guards. Henry VIII established the prestigious Gentlemen Pensioners who were aristocratic and highly paid. Henry VIII was known for his locks, which were often changed as well as taken on progress. One is said to still remain at Hever Castle.

One of Henry VIII's locks

Weir continues discussing the homes of King Henry in this chapter, but in far more detail.

Weir begins by discussing the interior decorating of Tudor palaces. According to her, if one had wealth, they flaunted it. This was shown most intensely through the use of gilt (gold covering upon an object). It was everywhere in Henry’s apartments, even to the gold thread used in his tapestries. Walls were made of plastered brick, painted white. Walls of important rooms would be covered in “linenfold” paneling. Most rooms in the royal apartments were hung with expensive tapestries, often featuring biblical stories (such as “The Story of Abraham” which still survives at Hampton Court. The ceilings would feature painted leather mache panels and moulded fretwork with pendents.

After discussing in length the look of the palaces, Weir begins to go into more detail about what was actually in the palaces. Sadly, little survives of Henry VIII’s furniture, however as Weir points out, there are many contemporary accounts of it. His chair of estate was covered in velvet and gold, and formed in the typical “X” shape of the period. It was intricately carved and above it hung an elaborate gold canopy of estate. Like wise, his wife had a similar but smaller version.

However, a person’s wealth was measured by their bed. Henry’s bed at Windsor was eleven feet square and hung with cloth of gold and silver. Anne Boleyn, for example, was given an extremely elaborate bed by Henry hung with Venetian silk and gold tassels. Again, heraldic symbols were used to decorate bed hangings, or were carved onto the bed itself. Being king, Henry had the best bed. Surprisingly, Weir informs that he slept on at least 8 mattresses (each stuffed with 13 lbs of carded wool) topped with fine lawn sheets, velvet, and fur.

However, Henry did not actually sleep in any of these beds. He had smaller, less elaborate beds to sleep in in his privy bedchambers. These elaborate state beds were simply used for ceremony.

Another extremely valuable possession was a person’s “plate.” This was their table wear, often made of precious metals. Henry owned 2,028 items of plate. Like an elaborate bed, the number of items (as well as the quality) of a person’s plate gauged their wealth. Among Henry’s most valuable possessions were his clocks. Rare at the time, Henry owned 17, each with its own distinct chime. Another valuable item which has surprisingly survived is Henry VIII’s writing desk, made of walnut and exquisitely painted. It still bears his and Katherine of Aragon’s initials.

Within this chapter Weir also discusses the process of moving all of these items (plus some) in the yearly progress. She explains that the “sheer amount of work involved in moving the court from place to place was staggering…” with hundreds of courtiers and servants moving, along with furniture (including great beds, tapestries, and valuables) (52).

During the progress, the King traveled on horseback. It was a time to see and be seen. The King was able to see his people and they him, renewing the bond between Master and Servant. The Ladies of the Court would ride in liters (according to rank), in a “chair” (like a carriage) or on palfreys. Barges were also used by Henry (his preferred method of travel). Roads could be muddy, crowded, and smelly. Traveling by river was far easier and faster.

Henry VIII was “a fastidious man” who was obsessed with cleanliness (54). He required his rooms to be kept clean, with pages rising early in the morning to make sure all was as it should be before the King rose.

Despite this, Weir explains that personal hygiene (given the difficulty of obtaining perfumes and soaps) was bad. Fleas, bedbugs, and lice were a constant problem. Another problem faced at court was the constant abuse of palace walls…for men to relieve themselves on. Thus, large “garderobes” were built containing long rows of pots in which men could relieve themselves in.

Henry VIII family portrait showing the detail of Tudor royal interiors.

Another interior, perhaps at Nonsuch Palace.

Weir covers the importance of palaces in this chapter. She explains that palaces were “the setting for magnificence…since any house where the King took up residence became, for the duration of his visit, the seat of government” (36). There were two kinds of royal residences: 1) the “greater houses” (like the palaces with great halls, such as Hampton Court) and 2) the “lesser houses” (such as small manors used during the yearly progress or for hunting trips).

According to Weir, as clearly demonstrated in the title, Henry VIII was “‘a perfect builder of pleasant palaces’” (38). Looking at the many many houses he built during his reign, it is clear Henry VIII was interested in architecture. He even had his own drawing utensils which he kept at Greenwich. He would often visit his construction sites and was, according to Weir, and extremely demanding employer who would make workers work 24/7 no matter the weather (with candles and canvases of course!)

To display his magnificence as King, the palaces were adorned with his badges and mottos, as well as glass in the windows (a luxury). This type of decoration, called heraldry, was an “international code,” which “in an age when many people could not read, such powerful symbolism proclaimed triumphantly to the world the identity of the owner” (40).

All the palaces were laid out in a similar way. The King and Queen had their own, separate apartments. The most outward chamber was the guard chamber, followed by the presence chamber, the privy chamber, the withdrawing room, the bed chamber, and a few other small, private rooms. These rooms would be lavishly decorated with beautiful tapestries, most likely paneled in dark wood, and contain ornate wooden furniture.

Tudor gardens were very formal and geometrically laid out. Most were “knot” gardens, with heraldic beasts for decoration. Most contained a banqueting house used for out door entertainments. Henry VIII loved gardens, and, when the weather was good, would conduct business in them rather than inside the palace.

Type of decor used at Hampton Court

Another example from Hampton Court

Example of a badge or heraldic symbol at Hampton Court

Dark wood paneling common in Tudor interior design.

In this chapter, Weir discusses the royal court which revolved around the king. She claims that Henry VIII’s court was the most magnificent in English history. It was not only the home of the king, but also the “political and cultural hub of the nation, a seat of government, a sophisticated arts center, and a meeting place of scholars, all in a setting of unprecedented splendor” (27).

Weir also explains who was actually at the royal court. Apparently, besides the nobles (whose “ancient right it was to attend upon the king”), anyone who “was smartly dressed, appeared to have some legitimate business, or had cash for bribes could gain entry” to the royal court (27). This resulted in the Eltham Ordinances (forbiding anyone to “‘bring to court any boy or rascal’” (27).)

Most people at court came in the hopes of receiving something. Though Henry VIII is painted as a greedy man, he was apparently quite generous…if you caught him at the right time (such as on his way to the hunt). 

Numbers of people in residence at the royal court fluctuated (though in the winter it could be upwards of 1500!)  Surprisingly, there were fewer than 100 women at court (30). Most were wives or daughters of courtiers and were members of the Queen’s household. Katherine of Aragon’s household consisted of 160 persons, most of which were female. She had 8 Ladies-in-waiting and 30 maids-of honor. These were prized and sought after positions. However, the chief offices of the Queen’s household were men (31).

Those who lived at court were provided lodging, meals and “‘bouche of court’” (a daily allowance of bread, wine, beer, candles, and firewood). Of course, the allocations were determined by rank. The number of servants one was allowed to have was also regulated by status and closeness to the king.

An interesting fact Weir points out is the lodging of a few unexpected members of court: The King’s pets. Henry VIII would keep canaries and nightingales in ornamental bird cages in the windows of Hampton Court, as well as ferrets (though he was the only one allowed to do so) (33). Of course, the king had many dogs, with his favorite being beagles, spaniels, and grey hounds. As befiting the rank of “royal dog,” Henry’s dogs would sport a velvet collar and a kid (not sure what this is) of gold or silver or the king’s arms in pearls. Though Henry was a great hunter, his personal dogs were fed bread, not meat, to keep them from developing hunting instincts. However, two of his dogs (named Cut and Bull) were prone to getting lost.

Despite the disapproval of many of the the excess of the royal court, Henry held his court to a higher standard. Though women would commonly kiss men on the mouth as a greeting, and would sometimes find themselves in sexual dalliances, the King would not allow an “open display of wanton behavior” (34). Compared to other women in foreign courts, English ladies were not highly praised by visitors to the court.

Considering Henry’s example, it is not surprising to see that courtly love reigned. Henry and his men “were committed to the principles of the mediaeval knightly code” (34). Weir explains that this belief is reflected in Henry’s treatment of women. A knight could pay his respects to a woman who would then become his “mistress,” though not in the physical sense.  (Anne Boleyn is a good example). Katherine, in return, attempted to balance the youth and high-spirit in the King’s household by holding her ladies to a high moral standard, as well as surrounding herself with members of the older nobility. Weir begins to show the clear difference between to two already.

The Great Hall at Hampton Court where lower ranking members of the court would eat twice a day.

The Great Watching Chamber of Hampton Court where the highest members of court would dine, as it was closest to the King's private chambers.